Classical Athens is famous for what is arguably the most fully developed democracy of premodern times and for its cultural revolution, which helped lay the foundations for the arts, literature and sciences of the ancient and modern worlds. In 508 BC the Athenian demos ('people') rose up against a leader who was once again aiming for tyranny, expelled him and the foreign troops backing his attempt, and arrested and executed his upper-class supporters. They could no longer tolerate the internecine struggles of the elite and demanded an active role in the decision-making of the city. This was quickly realised by the reforms of Cleisthenes, which made the assembly and a new popular council of fivehundred members the final arbiters of public actions and laws. By the early 450s the people had consolidated their new demokratia ('democracy') by making decisions on an increasing range of public affairs and by taking over entirely the administration of justice and the oversight of magistrates. Admittedly, Athenian leaders were still members of the upper class, struggling for pre-eminence with each other. Now, however, their rivalries were played out in agones or political debates, with the final decision to support this or that politician resting with predominantly non-elite assembly goers and councillors. To win over such notoriously boisterous and censorious audiences, politicians were forced to negotiate and articulate the self-perceptions, norms and perceived interests of lower-class Athenians. Out of this dynamic of mass adjudicators and elite performers in competition with each other emerged a strong popular culture, which supported the liberty and political capability of every citizen, the rule of law and the open debating of policies and ideas.
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