This chapter documents that this surge has continued through 2004.Our data confirm the more casual observation of polarization in the conflict over aid to the contras in Nicaragua, the confirmation hearings and votes after the nominations of Robert Bork and Clarence Thomas to the Supreme Court, the rhetoric of the "Contract with America", the budget showdown between Speaker Gingrich and President Clinton in 1995, and the impeachment process in 1998-99. Measuring Ideology and Polarization: A Quick PrimerHow do we know that polarization has occurred?Every aficionado of American politics would label Ted Kennedy (D-MA) and Paul Wellstone (D-WI) as liberals, Sam Nunn (D-GA) and Jacob Javits (R-NY) as moderates, and Tom Delay (R-TX) and Jesse Helms (R-NC) as conservatives.But how does one discern that Jesse Helms is more conservative than Rick Santorum?And how do we know that Santorum is more conservative than Heinz since, obviously, the two men never served in Congress together?How do we locate Wellstone relative to someone even more remote, say William Jennings Bryan who denounced Republicans for crucifying mankind on a "cross of gold"?Most political scientists traditionally have measured liberal-conservative positions by using the data provided by the interest group ratings of the Americans for Democratic Action, the League of Conservation Voters, or the U.S. Chamber of Commerce.Groups construct these ratings by choosing the roll call votes that are important to their legislative agendas and identify whether a yea or nay vote indicates support for the group's goals.Indices are then constructed from the proportion of votes a member cast in
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