“Citizens of a Free People”: Popular Liberalism and Race in Nineteenth-Century Southwestern Colombia

Abstract

“All that belong to the Liberal Party in the Cauca are people of the pueblo bajo (as they are generally called) and blacks,” observes an 1859 letter written by Juan Aparicio, a local political operative who had undertaken the unenviable task of recruiting these same “lower classes” to support the powerful caudillo Tomás Mosquera’s new National Party. Aparicio tried to explain his failure in this assignment, arguing that “this class of people will not listen to anyone that is not of their party.”1 How had the local Liberal Party—controlled at the national level by wealthy white men—become associated with blacks and the poor in the Cauca region of southwestern Colombia? Or, more to the point, how did Afro-Colombians and other lower-class people transform elite political organizations into “their party”?In the Cauca, Afro-Colombians actively negotiated, bargained, and came to identify with the Liberal Party, seeing it as a means to enter the nation’s public, political life and improve their social and material condition. This alliance would last for roughly three decades, from the late 1840s until the late 1870s. During this time, both popular liberals and party leaders continually negotiated the meanings and terms of this association. This political bargaining arose most powerfully and memorably over the institution of slavery but soon included questions of land, rights, and citizenship. Many of the political transformations and civil wars of this period hinged on the social dynamics engendered by Afro-Colombians’ embrace of popular liberalism, a phenomenon that would significantly democratize Colombian republicanism. Eventually, the fates of Afro-Colombians and the Liberal Party became so closely intertwined that, especially for Conservatives, liberalism and blackness became synonymous.The Afro-Caucanos’ story occurred in both a postcolonial and—as their efforts bore fruit—a postemancipation environment. Perhaps even more directly than Rebecca Scott’s pioneering work revealed for Cuba, in Colombia slaves and freed communities played an important role in abolition.2 This grand effort was intricately linked with Afro-Colombians’ pursuit of full membership in the nation via the medium of popular liberalism.3 People of African descent succeeded in making liberalism their own very early in the century and, for a time, remarkably thoroughly. Ada Ferrer notes the uniqueness of the multiracial armies in Cuba’s wars for independence. Similar armies emerged in Colombia almost half a century earlier, and, although they were not as fully integrated as Cuba’s, they played an equally profound role in Colombia’s national development.4 Along with their compatriots engaged in similar struggles across Latin America, Afro-Colombians were part of a pan-Atlantic movement in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries to contest the meanings of liberalism and republicanism.5 Liberalism, republicanism, and democracy were not only created in the salons and statehouses of London, Paris, and Philadelphia; they were also given life in the streets and surrounding countrysides of Cap François, Havana, and Cali.The alliance that developed between the Cauca’s elite and subaltern liberals involved three dimensions: first, bargaining over the social, economic, and political structures of the region; second, the weight of Afro-Caucanos’ military and political support in the region’s elections and civil wars (which made the Liberal Party unbeatable when it was not internally divided); and third, the confluence of Liberals’ conception of citizenship with Afro-Colombians’ appropriation of that identity. While a full accounting of this story would begin with the wars of independence, the association of the Cauca’s Afro-Colombians and liberalism crystallized in the early 1850s with the emergence of the Liberal Party and the final struggle to abolish the lingering stain of slavery.During the turbulent years of 1850 and 1851, the Afro-Colombians of Cartago (a city in the northern Cauca) gathered at the local Democratic Society— a new, political the of from the the that had the of 1851, years the of Liberal the Liberal Party to their and the of in a of slaves and to the that continually the Liberals’ for Cauca had and the of the and only by in the and the to the Afro-Colombians the to of and in the on and in the early local that blacks and of the region’s the the Cauca was While people of African descent are of as in the the Cauca was also a of and a and were slaves and over of slaves had to and their until the of and had to work for until the Cauca, a of the nation’s the of slavery in not only most of the region’s slaves but also of the and as was in and the was by and had to land, with the of the as class to by and for and Afro-Colombians and even most people of African descent were not the of the popular and slavery was in to the of slaves who had in the the of the by the new national and the of the institution was both and and had the to slavery and to and political independence, but with During the of the had a for of the wars of but would a Liberal slaves their they his was and of the the of blacks and to would not the late and elite of their and in the Cauca were for in their struggle the who had the region’s and were most of the the did on the support of powerful most of their were made of a and While and a similar slavery and they on the role of the and of the of to subaltern to their in the Cauca, with an to both the and the when a with the Liberal Party, to abolish did not but a political slaves that their to for the that the of slavery is the to of that in the to the region’s three of the national and Democratic the the with Conservatives, had most important to and the of to their the of Cauca’s elite grand that included and also especially they were of the national Liberal a very role in the social life of the of their and the of these the Liberal the and the with of Liberal freed their Afro-Colombians were not by the of slaves the in the did begin to the association between and the Liberal Party. the that more they freed more in a grand to that Afro-Colombians who was for their in with in the Democratic and in the with an for and three a with and came to a the with of new the Liberal a of on his similar the of slaves in in the in with Liberal to the on with the of the and a of and the was of the most in in this of with from by blacks the also the national to their did not military but also in the of Liberal Many Afro-Colombians of this to of their of into the national was important to as a means of political first, it as a of political but more it as a of their in the that to the national was also linked to the most important of Liberal the Democratic in to Democratic also had to a of the Democratic the social elite and popular liberals to an alliance and a emerged from the as a more of Liberal would in both as and and as to the that their would the with the the This in by but would of to the a to work for the the with an to a new of the that had not fully this new Colombia they would to new in to the powerful centuries of had on the of the would poor their liberalism, republicanism, and would of the their the Democratic of a similar political by in and and of they Perhaps to their and to the of to in it was not but also the in and from who (a and that the Liberal Party was almost of the in that the and the not a blacks and as that are that the of and a of political for the on the of the and the and elite on the of the the of the and the and of and also to elite to popular Democratic was the most and powerful of the political to new the Cauca, but especially in the 1851, had in the of Cartago over over and and were of than three that did not only alliance with the the in and Democratic also and with a in to a of popular and elite republicanism, and Afro-Colombians had made important in the wars and civil but had from a in the Cauca’s political and Democratic a of republicanism, Afro-Colombians for with for these and only the elite and popular negotiated their for the Liberals’ was their to with their popular Many of the of elite from and of with of the made of their would and to to the to on the had made in the Liberal Party and to that the were to to the to abolish the of the national over the more the of and and for the poor the Liberal to over the popular of the especially land, and social national and to and the role of the poor in and in Democratic did not these but also to political the of of Democratic the the poor from for that Many of the especially poor engaged in and was of to of the a an to the not only that the poor part of the most but also that the to who into poor for their that new to in to their also for full citizenship for of were not the and for the by on by popular of the and to the and the national by the Along similar of the had to work for their to their own and with the Liberals’ of of these were the was even more to Cauca’s poor on the of had to in and as their own Democratic was generally on the of these was in of an to the the of had not to with the that the city to a and the of that will in the and that the were a their of had to an at the national generally as and to the popular liberals and was in the that was the of of over from the that that was but that between with more the is the of popular but Liberal leaders had of subaltern even that had their would the most between elite and popular the alliance between in the early in of this with the Liberal of of the the of the had to their in to their lower-class the most of Afro-Colombians was not but final in 1850 and early 1851, it was also the elite the most it was the of their both and as a means of with the failure to abolish and the of the with to subaltern and to the as over their as with the had made and the people to to their Perhaps more of the were the into their own and their and his to the that was made and that the leaders had not their that the were as they had three years for the Liberal to did their to popular the in the of the that had developed in that of the Liberals’ to the that the to the city a of blacks and that and his and that that the that was so that the would abolish to in 1851, that slaves the so in the Liberal was and and the to with the was not the of a to a of the poor they as and for an and poor had to Conservatives, as most not of the were with that poor white and Afro-Colombians especially and popular to they for they a of for military did not to but made the Democratic their own and to not fully the political they had popular were not to for the to on their not only Liberal leaders to but also social and political to the class and for and citizenship on the of to by their social that in and other at to and soon and in of of the popular the and class in an of popular as the with the of on in as as and the movement to on and their the of to slaves and and their their the of the are in the of and are with is the is not their that a was but the Liberal with the to their as a of that had with the their as for centuries of did to in the of the but they generally did this not by on the but by to of their did not but also of who not not the but also the Liberals’ with the how the people of the by and to the to the Democratic to his Tomás his the new of the in his the of would Liberal but popular liberals as and that the streets of the Liberals’ a to their to in to are the national that the as they will not on the of would and popular and had given the elite support they the region and their of and independence. they were of the was even to the most liberals to their with a that most in the made that their popular the to the of the of Democratic that to from and that and that the were that blacks that the in the of their and they it that they were at to and for their and that of their that blacks the and to support the the in and as of the the to the the was in in in and in Afro-Colombians the had and Liberals’ the of and the most the most that the as the for the of the national Liberal armies the and to the in the region of had to the Liberals’ at popular that the the that it the that would slavery on of slaves were from their on the between their party and did not when they the to they for their a in a local that not a slavery on to the is it that made the the of gathered for a of that they their to the who had so and with to for their and to to their as as with the by a of three very how the of in and how to the and of the they the of with to the and the did the role of the in and their to to for a for when was tried for of his how had and, when they were the to when the of his with that the and in of their they their letter with a powerful to to in and to efforts the most part of that to the of that for will into and by the of as the of their even would that in the to slavery would to Afro-Colombians’ in the and the civil is as a not to their it is that the popular to slavery the of the negotiated alliance between elite and popular between popular and elite liberalism, in the struggle for would until the 1870s. liberals also for and of their citizenship rights, although they had their as and on in (as by the to on their alliance with the popular their to (which was when with of the at this in the liberals also on to their from and to Conservatives, to their and generally to the that blacks and the elections not that his party an to although in the in the the party a to to their of the especially and new, civil in their on national and that liberalism popular when an military by a of their own in the with the Conservatives, who national these the of of popular in the Cauca, armies of this alliance with to the in to their social over the engaged in a to for the and their in and tried to the of Afro-Colombians from of the and of popular especially the Afro-Colombians as for the to not the in the Cauca, it is only that this poor so that it will in the in Cuba, did not with for and they to Afro-Colombians from is that most elite in the Cauca were popular in the most and in Many the Liberal the even that with the especially on the were as as their elite of to support when a on Afro-Colombians to the to their that had the to of local and popular they and with the of the liberals tried their to but with their party was they Conservatives, soon on the the a to the that liberalism was not on the Conservatives, even with to and it almost to the to came from of their Tomás of the to in the by to support for his efforts in the Cauca, but most did not at a their own was not from the Conservatives, his new and to the Cauca’s popular popular liberals his early as by Juan were made these by in by Conservatives, and to for by the and popular liberalism arose and that the had it the were not that were in and and were that had with the in the of in the had a to work in the with their own was made almost of to the had the Democratic in had the in the was not a in Liberals’ to the a by were to with their popular and the of a an from made their that to a was a Liberal who was for his popular with and most a the would support and to of and of social was as with and made an to will in and when the of will more than to in of the the and into the Liberal and a alliance with the popular who had to in his into in and as they had in 1851, Afro-Colombians to the Liberal by the Democratic was and from the civil at at the Afro-Colombians were that to their by to of and given popular to the over During the the of the and that by between the of the that had in Perhaps it is to that this and was not but at had in the civil almost of Liberal in the Cauca, the party on lower-class for and military tried to in but were even more and in but the Democratic to the Liberal Party from in not on the but also at the local but also with the support of Afro-Colombians on that with the and were to the their on the of by the new national the the of rights, the Cauca’s political the of and Afro-Colombians’ of this period was and did not but also engaged in they in the of local and to of their to the popular in and and at they their their for their in continually and made their in the region’s political this (as the Cauca became Colombia as a of and with and and During the civil to into a Democratic his to the the to to by of the for that they would the local of popular in the Cauca, especially by blacks and in the of Colombia and in the Afro-Colombians were so important to that the party as Liberal in the civil part of that is made of and and of the Cauca would that not of the that made popular liberals were people of African liberalism became at for Conservatives, and especially the who associated with popular liberalism also to Liberal armies had and popular became to the in the This even to leaders who was and a it not as of as to his political and their bargaining with the Liberal Party not to with the caudillo of liberals did not with the Liberal Party of was the by the of and in the Cauca their liberals with elite they in that alliance their to their economic, and social liberals not with (as in the caudillo but with the party and and this alliance was and not by leaders as Liberal leaders not and popular liberals did not their only to as While notes that on and Cauca had to for military and on land, rights, and, most bargaining not only popular but also the social and political of subaltern into the of Colombian political by their popular the Cauca, and to their in civil national as they were not internally popular and elite liberals were made of popular liberals not had a that not their own popular for a of these popular were not as to involved in the Party at this tried to as they had in 1851, they would at the of the of Democratic of in of the did popular liberals to citizenship as a new that would other in an they to the into elite citizenship to popular and especially for Afro-Colombians with a new and political that they in the of the of Liberal citizenship in the Cauca it these a to support the Liberal This other of the popular and who were to their and to that were who only and did not the of blacks as and as popular liberals to this and by the of of Afro-Colombians’ role in While they for not even of had not the full of from the and their on the of to the of were but they as in a of the of the that would and the national and the Democratic fully in this but the had recruiting blacks and into their party and, at to improve their While to of for the is is how Cauca on their lower-class in the of the nation not only in but in in a and of liberalism and Afro-Colombians an into the public, political on the new of to their as slaves of the that to on the that they and to the of the into the of the leaders of the of to and that to into slaves of a than were Tomás that his had into for his and to a than when were Afro-Colombians to their to the of their and not only slavery but also similar to slavery most had a of over their the of the and the of and when to a new that they are are that they are and that these means to to is the that they in these slavery was a the they their of popular the of the Afro-Colombians a to their as the of to the national to the of the that the and the of so and with it the other and of of the not only that they were who not as slaves but also their new in the as of the to as in the of as their with their new as not but with that citizenship the of slavery did not of the who and from the to the their as in a in of a and not the slaves of a of a century the of the of citizenship to that Afro-Colombians’ and had but the new of the their in the social did popular liberals they elite was the for citizenship. Conservatives, it on and social the to citizenship in the of the political it the nation the Liberal the efforts of to and to the party the of slaves and in of the nation for their the made to the of the the and to the that it of to that the the of

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