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We have reviewed training programs for complex skills that have strong decision-making components, such as nuclear power plant operations and air traffic control. In each case, we found that an ISD approach is routinely applied to training-program design. The ISD framework can aid training designers in designing individual modules of instruction but seems to provide insufficient guidance on designing the larger training-program structure. We found two types of problems. First, because a good understanding of skill acquisition is not used to drive training-program design, training activities can be ineffective or inefficient. Second, because it is difficult to get insights on cognitive skills with traditional task analysis, the core decision-making task is not trained explicitly. Trainees are typically on their own to discover decision-making skills. We developed an alternative framework for training-program design called the Functional Context Approach. This approach attempts to restore efficiency to skill acquisition and improve training of critical decision-making skills.
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