Direct and indirect punishment among strangers in the field

Loukas Balafoutas · Nikos Nikiforakis · Bettina Rockenbach

194 citations0/0 files storedProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences

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Evolutionary Game Theory and Cooperation Experimental Behavioral Economics Studies Social Power and Status Dynamics

Abstract

Many interactions in modern human societies are among strangers. Explaining cooperation in such interactions is challenging. The two most prominent explanations critically depend on individuals' willingness to punish defectors: In models of direct punishment, individuals punish antisocial behavior at a personal cost, whereas in models of indirect reciprocity, they punish indirectly by withholding rewards. We investigate these competing explanations in a field experiment with real-life interactions among strangers. We find clear evidence of both direct and indirect punishment. Direct punishment is not rewarded by strangers and, in line with models of indirect reciprocity, is crowded out by indirect punishment opportunities. The existence of direct and indirect punishment in daily life indicates the importance of both means for understanding the evolution of cooperation.

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1990Foundations of social theory 1991Foundations of Social Theory 2006Five Rules for the Evolution of Cooperation 2002Altruistic punishment in humans 2000Cooperation and Punishment in Public Goods Experiments 2003The nature of human altruism 2005Evolution of indirect reciprocity 2004Third-party punishment and social norms

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