Defying Our Master: The Appropriation of Milton in Johnson's Political Tracts

Abstract

DefyingOurMaster: TheAppropriationofMiltonin Johnson'sPoliticalTracts BRUCEREDFORD JNoneeverwisheditlongerthanitis.Itsperusalisadutyratherthana pleasure.WereadMiltonforinstruction,retireharassedandoverbur- dened,andlookelsewhereforrecreation;wedesertourmaster,andseek forcompanions."1WedesertourMaster,weeventauntanddefyhim, butwealsoacknowledgehismastery.Johnson'sLifeofMiltonvibrates betweenthetwopolesofhomageandassault,venerationandrevulsion, awestruckdeferenceandpiercingmockery.Whatexplains,whateven reconciles,theseshiftingtonesandattitudes?Intworecentessays, StephenFixhasarguedpowerfullyforthefundamentalintegrityofthis, thetensest,roughest,seeminglymostinconsistentoftheLivesofthePoets.2FixdemonstratesthatJohnson'sdevastatingcritiqueofMilton theman,thepolitician,andthesocialpoetmayappeartocontradict,but infactpreparesfor,hisexaltedpraiseofMilton'sachievementinChris- tianepic.SuchpraiseisallthemoreremarkableforJohnson'srefusalto extendhisadhominemattacksbysuggestingthat"Satan'sinsolence,his languageofinsubordinationandrebellion,couldhavebeenthecreative productonlyofamanwellacquaintedwithsuchqualities."3Johnson abhorredMilton'spolitics,yetheabstainedfrommaking"theconnec- tiontheromanticslaterwoulddrawbetweenMilton,thepoliticalrebel, andMilton,thecreatorofSatan."4 SincetheappearanceofFix'stwoessays,DustinGriffinhasinter- 81 82 / REDFORD pretedtheLifeofMiltonaslatentautobiography:forGriffin,thework isfilledwith"struggle,"witha"languageofpower[that]suggestsJohnsoniancombat ."5BothGriffinandFixconcentrateonJohnsontheliter- arycritic,wrestlingwithMiltontheepicpoet.Theirvaluableinsightscan beextended,however,toanotherbattlefield—onethathasreceivedscant attentionfromstudentsofJohnson'slatercareer.6Iwillarguethatthefourpoliticaltractsofthe1770s(TheFalseAlarm,ThoughtsontheLate TransactionsRespectingFalkland'sIslands,ThePatriot,andTaxation NoTyranny)affiliatetheOppositionwithtwocatastrophicrupturesin theestablishedorder—Milton'swarinheavenandtheEnglishCivilWar. ThesetwoconflictshauntedJohnson'sreligious,literary,andhistorical imagination.Bymappingthemontotheeventsofhisownperiod,John- sonlinkswhathekeepsseparateinhisLife—politicslikeMilton'sonthe onehandandrebelliousnesslikeSatan'sontheother.Consideredasa whole,thefourtractsanatomizewhatDonaldGreenehascalled"the Puritanor'Whig'temperament,thetemperamentofopposition,which Johnsonfeelsistheproductofacold-hearted,enviousegocentricity,a diseasedpsychology."7 Mydiscussioncentersonthreepoints,whichIoffernowinsomewhat abbreviatedform.First,Johnson'sfourtracts,thoughcomposedovera five-yearperiod,ineffectcomposeoneextendedmanifesto.Thetracts areunitedbycommontargets,claims,rebuttals,andpatternsoffigura- tivelanguage.LikethefouressaysthatmakeupRuskin'sUntoThis Last,Johnson'spoliticalquartetcommitsitselftoexpoundinglogically throughpoint-by-pointrefutation,andtoregisteringemotivelythrough mythicandmetaphoriccounterpoint. Mysecondpointisthatthetracts,whicharedeeplypermeatedby Miltonicformulaeofvariouskinds,rehearsethestrugglethatdominates Johnson'sbiographyof1779.Allusionshadesintoappropriationas JohnsonslylyenlistsMiltoninthecounter-revolutionarycause,turning toParadiseLostandSonnetNo.12forwords,arguments,anddramatic situationsthatwillconsolidatehispolemicalstance.Allfourtracts,for example,casttheenemyinavarietyofSatanicroles:Middlesexvoters, Britishpatriots,andupstartAmericansturnintorebelliousangels,who setthemselvesupasself-authorizingdenizensofPandemonium. MythirdandfinalpointisthatJohnson'spoliticaltractsexemplifythe goalsandproceduresofParadiseLostasJohnsonanalyzestheminhis LifeofMilton.Addressedtothefallenreaderofthe1770s,surprisedby anti-governmentalsin,thetractsaimtodisentanglethesinuousrhetoric oftheOpposition,toexposeitsfallaciesandblandishments,andto illustratethecrucialdifferencebetween"thelanguageofrebellion"and "thelanguageofobedience."8Theirfinalpurpose—onetheysharewith DefyingourMaster / 83 Milton'sepic—istoimpose"onmentheconsciousnessofsubservience theywishtoavoidhaving."9Thebasicparadigmisconstantthroughout: Abdiel/JohnsonbattlesthoseSatanicantagonists,athomeandabroad, who"withimpiousobloquycondemn/Thejustdecree"10—notofGod butofHisMajesty'sGovernment.Ineverytractasolitaryvoiceof reasonspeaksoutboldlyagainstclamorousPatriots,exposestheirspe-ciousrhetoric,and"reprovesthemforbeingseducersofthepeople."" TheFalseAlarmof1770takesaimatthesupportersof"Wilkesand Liberty,"whorepeatedlyre-electedtheirleaderafterhehadbeen deprivedofhismembershipinParliament.AccordingtoDonaldGreene, "noonewhohastriedtosummarizethepamphletwouldmaintainthatit iswellorganized"12—ajudgmentthatcertainlyappliesifonelooksfora rigoroussequenceofargumentation.Yettheabsenceofalogicalschema ismorethanoffsetbyasymboliccoherencethatderivesfromJohnson's subtleadaptationofMilton'sepicplottothepoliticaldramaofthe Wilkitemovement.Infactthepieceasawholefollowsthegeneralout- linesofParadiseLost:itbeginsinmediasres,backtrackstothecauses andeventsthatledtothesituationathand,imaginesafurthercampaign againsttheGovernment(couchedintermsofaHogarthianprogress), thenforecastsahappyissuefromadversity. AtthebeginningofTheFalseAlarmJohnsonfocusesonWilkes's earlycareer,rephrasingthetermsoftheindictmentsthatledtohisexpul- sionfromParliament,outlawry,andexileontheContinent.In1763 Wilkeshadbeenfoundguiltyof"false,scandalous,andseditiouslibel" (forNorthBritonNo.45)andof"scandalous,obscene,andimpious libel"(fortheEssayonWoman).nJohnsoncondensesandabstracts thesecharges:inhistelling,Wilkeshadbeenpunishedforthevicesof "sedition"and"impiety"(319,320).Theseviceshave"infected"and "inflamed"Wilkes'ssupporters,turningtheminto"drudgesofsedition" (339). InJohnson'sview,Wilkesandhiscrewhavewilfullyresistedafunda- mentaltruth:"allgovernmentsupposessubjects,allauthorityimplies obedience"(325).Therootcauseor"originalprinciple"oftheirperni- cious"patriotism"is"thedesireoflevelling;itisonlyanimatedunderthe nameofzeal,bythenaturalmalignityofthemeanagainstthegreat" (341).Johnson'sanalysisofthetemperamentthatbreedsoppositionnot onlyalignsthepatriotswiththefallenangels;itechoeshiscritiqueofthe PresbyterianzealotFrancisCheynel14anddirectlyforecaststhefamous diagnosisofMilton'srepublicanism,arepublicanism"foundedinan envioushatredofgreatness,andasullendesireofindependence...he feltnotsomuchtheloveoflibertyasrepugnancetoauthority."15 WhileitsucceedsinassimilatingtheWilkitemovementtoaSatanic 84 / REDFORD archetype,theMiltonicplotofTheFalseAlarmalsorunstheriskof investingthatmovementwithacertaindevilishgrandeur.Lesthe empowertheOppositioneventhroughtropes,Johnsoninvokesatthe climaxofhispieceacomparativeframeworkthatrobstheself-styled patriotsofforceandglamor—thatshrinksthem,infact,intomock-epic posturers: Sincethisexpedientnowinventedorrevivedtodistressthegovernment, andequallypracticableatalltimesbyallwhoshallbeexcludedfrom powerandprofit,hasproducedsolittleeffect,letusconsiderthe oppositionasnolongerformidable.Thegreatenginehasrecoiledupon them.Theythoughtthat"thetermstheysentweretermsofweight," whichwouldhave"amazedallandstumbledmany";butthe consternationisnowover,andtheirfoes"standupright,"asbefore. (340) InBook6ofParadiseLost,Satanandhiscrewinventthecannonand deployitagainstthearmyledbyArchangelMichael.Ultimately,how- ever,theirnewfangled"Engin,"belchingsoundandfury,signifiesnoth- ingagainsttheforcesoftheAlmighty.WhatBelialthecannoneerintends asasetofmockinglyaccuratepuns("termsofweight,/Ofhardcon- tents,andfullofforceurgedhome")inrealitydescribesneitherthe rhetoricnorthearmamentsoftherebelangels(6.621-22).His"scoffing, ambiguouswords"proveasmisfoundedandasfutileasthemaneuvers oftherevoltinglegions.Mutatismutandis,WilkesandCompanyrecapit- ulatethefoolishbravadooftheirSatanicexemplars. InThoughtsonFalkland'sIslandsJohnson'sfierceassaultonthe Oppositionreflectstheseriousnessoftheissue:shouldEnglandhave embroileditselfwithSpainover"ableakandgloomysolitude,anisland thrownasidefromhumanuse,stormyinwinter,andbarreninsummer; anislandwhichnotthesouthernsavageshavedignifiedwithhabita- tion"?(369).The"patriotic"OppositionthatsupportedWilkesnow thirstsnotforinternalreformbutforbloodandforthespoilsofwar. RefininghisstrategyinTheFalseAlarm,Johnsonimaginesforthe Hawksof1771acareerthatrecapitulatesthehistoryofMilton'sfallen angels.Initiallythewar-mongersarepresentedasdenizensofPandemo- nium,aninsubstantialfabricbuiltofhellishmaterialsandfilledwiththe cantofdemons:"Butattheconclusionofatenyearswar,howarewe recompensedforthedeathofmultitudesandtheexpenceofmillions,but bycontemplatingthesuddengloriesofpaymastersandagents,contrac- torsandcommissaries,whoseequipagesshinelikemeteorsandwhose palacesriselikeexhalations"(371).Totheseenemiesofpeaceandorder JohnsonthenassignsSatan'smalevolentcredo,"allgoodtomeislost;/ Evilbethoumygood"(4.109-10):"Thepatriotsgratifiedthemselves DefyingourMaster / 85 withexpectationsthatsomesinistrousaccident,orerroneousconduct, mightdiffusediscontentandinflamemalignity.Theirhopeismalevo- lence,andtheirgoodisevil"(374-75). TheOppositionexhibitsnotonly"malevolence"butalsoenvyand angeratthesuccessfulresolutionofthedisputebetweenEnglandand Spain.Continuinghisstrategyofguiltbyassociation,Johnsonconflates twokeyscenesfromParadiseLost—Milton'saccountofSatanashe preparestoenterEden,andthedescriptionoftheSerpentjustbeforehe beginshistemptationofEve.AsSatansoliloquizesinthefirstofthese twoscenes,"eachpassiondimmedhisface/Thricechangedwithpale, ire,envy,anddespair,/Whichmarredhisborrowedvisage"(4.114-16). InthelaterscenethesightofEveamongtherosestemporarilydeprives Satanofhis"fierceintent":"Thatspacetheeviloneabstractedstood/ Fromhisownevil,andforthetimeremained/Stupidlygood" (9.463-65).Johnsondrawsascornfulcontrastbetweenthedemeanorof thePatriotsandthebehaviorofSataninBook9;healsocomparesthe passionthatcharacterizestheOppositionwiththe"perturbation"that betraysSatantoUriel: Whentheyfoundthatallwerehappyinspiteoftheirmachinations,and thesofteffulgenceofpeaceshoneoutuponthenation,theyfeltno motionbutthatofsullenenvy;theycouldnot,likeMilton'sprinceof hell,abstractthemselvesamomentfromtheirevil;astheyhavenotthe witofSatan,theyhavenothisvirtue;theytriedonceagainwhatcould bedonebysophistrywithoutart,andconfidencewithoutcredit.They representedtheirSovereignasdishonouredandtheircountryas betrayed,or,intheirfiercerparoxismsoffury,reviledtheirSovereign asbetrayingit.(384-85) AttheendofThoughtsonFalkland'sIslands,JohnsonreturnstoPande- monium,masterfullyadaptingthatmomentwhentheassembleddevils turnintoserpentsandtheirshoutingdwindlesinto"adismaluniversal hiss"(508).ThePatriots'stingmightoncehavepoisonedtheCommon- wealth,but"theyhavenowshewnthattheycanonlyhiss,andmay thereforequietlyslinkintoholes,andchangetheirsloughunmolested andforgotten"(386). InTheFalseAlarmWilkesistheprinceofdarkness;inThoughtson Falkland'sIslandsthatroleisassignedtoJunius,"thewritertowhomhis partyowesmuchofitspride,andsomeofitspopularity"(376).Ina portraitbothdamningandadmiring,JohnsoninvestsJuniuswithsome- thingofLucifer'sruinedgrandeur.Keyinghisimagerytoanalmost Burkeanpitch,heborrowsanddevelopsasimilefromBook2ofParadiseLost : /REDFORD IncensedwithindignationSatanstood Unterrified,andlikeacometburned, ThatfiresthelengthofOphiucushuge IntheArtiesky,andfromthehorridhair Shakespestilenceandwar. (2.707-11) JohnsontrainshispoliticaltelescopeonJuniusandchartshisexact movements: Juniusisanunusualphaenomenononwhichsomehavegazedwith wonderandsomewithterrour,butwonderandterrouraretransitory passions.Hewillsoonbemorecloselyviewedormoreattentively examined,andwhatfollyhastakenforacometthatfromitsflaming hairshookpestilenceandwar,enquirywillfindtobeonlyameteor formedbythevapoursofputrefyingdemocracy,andkindledintoflame bytheeffervescenceofintereststrugglingwithconviction;whichafter havingplungeditsfollowersinabog,willleaveusenquiringwhywe regardedit.(377-78) Thisstrikingpassage,uniqueinitsmetaphysicalintricacy,nonetheless exemplifiestheprocedureofJohnson'stractasawhole.Ifwedispassionatelyexaminecometstheyturnfirstintometeorsandthenintomarsh gas;ifwescrutinizeangelstheyturnfirstintodevilsandthenintofang- lessserpents;ifweanalyzetheclaimsoftheOppositiontheyturnfirst into"clamour"andtheninto"gabble"(367). ThePatriot,ashortbutpenetratingexerciseincorrectiveredefinition, isbracketedbytwoquotationsfromMilton,thefirstdrawnfromSonnet No.12,thesecondfromthepreludetoSatan'sspeechfromthethrone. ThequotationfromParadiseLostcontinuesthestrategywehave observedinTheFalseAlarmandThoughtsonFalkland'sIslands, wherebytruepatriotismissharplydistinguishedfromfalse,loyalsub- jectsfromthosewhodisguiseseditionasreformation.Inonelongperi- odicsentence,Johnsondescribesandexcoriatestheconductofthe Opposition,disposinghisclausessothatangelicclaimsareconclusively exposedasdevilishhypocrisy: ThatthenextHouseofCommonsmayactupontheprinciplesofthe last,withmoreconstancyandhigherspirit,mustbethewishofallwho wishwelltothepublic;anditissurelynottoomuchtoexpect,thatthe nationwillrecoverfromitsdelusion,anduniteinageneralabhorrence ofthosewho,bydeceivingthecredulouswithfictitiousmischiefs, overbearingtheweakbyaudacityoffalsehood,byappealingtothe judgmentofignorance,andflatteringthevanityofmeanness,by slanderinghonestyandinsultingdignity,havegatheredroundthem DefyingourMaster / 87 whateverthekingdomcansupplyofbase,andgross,andprofligate; and"raisedbymerittothisbademinence,"arrogatetothemselvesthe nameofPatriots.(399-400) Johnsoninsertsthequotationinsuchawaythatsoundextendsand enforcessense:fournounsofthreesyllableseach("profligate,""emi- nence,""arrogate"withitsovertonesof"arrogant,"and"Patriot")relo- catetheOppositionwhereitbelongs—inHell. Theeffectofthisclimacticquotationdependsonastraightforward correspondence(patriot-devil)thatinvokestextbutnotcontext,Milton's HellbutnotMilton'srepublicanism.Johnson'schoiceofepigraph,by contrast,involvesamorecomplexattitude,onethatextendsbeyond allusionintoappropriation.AtthebeginningofThePatriotJohnson quotesthefirstquatrainof"OntheDetractionwhichfolloweduponmy WritingCertainTreatises": Theybawlforfreedomintheirsenselessmood, Yetstillrevoltwhentruthwouldsetthemfree, Licensetheymean,whentheycryliberty. Forwholovesthatmustfirstbewiseandgood. Tosetthisepigraphinthecontextofthepiecethatfollowsitandinthe sequenceofthefourpoliticaltractsistomakeseveraldiscoveries:that thequotationformsabridgepassagefromThoughtsonFalkland's IslandstoThePatriot;thatJohnsonwishestoremindhisreadersofthe entiresonnetanditsoriginalcontext;andthatMilton'swordsarebeing usedagainsthim,ifyouwill,inordertosuggestthatthePatriotsofthe 1770sdescendfromthosewho"bawledforfreedom"inthemidseven- teenthcenturyandbroughtcivilwartoEngland. BothMilton'ssonnetandJohnson'stractspeakoutagainstthebawlers andgabblerswhowouldtwist,abuse,andevennullifylanguagetosuit theirownselfishpurposes.Bothtextscommitthemselvestoreforming politicaldiscourseasanecessaryprerequisitetocreatingresponsiblecivic behavior...

Cite this work

No public copy is stored for this record, so only the metadata is cited.

Stored only when both papers are in the corpus — 17 citations exist upstream.

Papers that cite the same references — the relational fallback while embeddings are still backfilling.