Patterns of aggression and response to aggression were studied in three groups of macaques living in semiliberty, each group representing a different species: Macaca mulatta, M fascicularis, and M tonkeana. In Macaca mulatta, intensity of aggression is high (biting is frequent) and symmetry in aggression is low: the aggressee most often flees or submits. In Macaca tonkeana, in contrast, biting is exceptional, aggression is very often bidirectional, and appeasement behaviors are frequently observed. Intermediate patterns are found in Macaca fascicularis with, in addition, especially frequent mild forms of submission. It is argued that relationships exist between intensity of aggression, symmetry in aggression, and development of behaviors controlling aggresssion. Whether balances between these variables are species-specific is discussed.
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