A sustainable livelihood cost-benefit model to enhance the understanding of the dynamics between low income housing and location

Abstract

To keep pace with increasing urbanisation pressures and a substantial inherited backlog, subsidised low-income housing and services have predominantly been provided on the peripheries of South African cities where land is cheaper and more readily available. While this strategy has been widely praised for its rapid delivery of more than a million low-income housing units, it has been severely critiqued for perpetuating the marginalisation of the poor by restricting their access to urban opportunities and leading to extensive commuting, which absorbs a disproportionate share of their time and already limited disposable income, with associated environmental costs in terms of resource use and greenhouse gas emissions. The alternative proposed has been the compact city model, involving curtailing outward expansion, increasing housing densities and promoting public transport. The merits of this model, have however, only been subjected to scant empirical testing in South Africa. This article seeks to make a contribution to the 'location-question' by empirically testing the hypothesis that low income housing in peripheral localities is more costly and less beneficial to society than the same housing provided in more central localities. In order to do this, a sustainable livelihood cost-benefit model was developed and applied in eight subsidised housing locations in two cities. Amongst others, measured variables were transportation costs, travel times, fuel consumption and accessibility to employment and other urban opportunities and amenities. The results indicate that more central localities do not necessarily perform better overall than more peripheral localities on the scores as measured. This is attributed to : the polycentric nature of our cities; and the relatively lesser importance of access for lower-income households to formal employment nodes than to informal job opportunities within or near the low income settlement itself and in middle to high income residential areas. In addition to this, the needs of low-income households were found to change over time, which suggests that no single type of location will optimally serve all low income households, while at the same time, being affordable to households and government. 'n Volhoubare bestaans-kostevoordelige model vir die uitbreiding van kennis rondom die dinamiek tussen laekostebehuising en ligging Gesubsidieerde laekostebehuising en dienste is voorsien op die randgebied van Suid-Afrikaanse stede waar grond goedkoper en meer geredelik beskikbaar is, om tred te hou met die toenemende verstedelikingsdruk tesame met 'n substansieele inherente agterstand. Terwyl die strategie erkenning ontvang het vir die spoedige lewering van meer as 'n miljoen laekoste behuisingseenhede, het dit net soveel kritiek ontvang vir die voortgesette marginalisering van die agtergeblewenes deur hul toegang na stedelike geleendhede te beperk. Dit lei tot uitgebreide pendeling, wat op sy beurt lei tot die absorbering van 'n groter proporsie van die persoon se tyd met 'n alreeds beperkte besteebare inkomste, geassosieerde omgewingskoste in terme van die gebruik van hulpbronne en die bydrae tot aardverwarming deur die vrystelling van uitlaatgasse. Die voorgestelde alternatief behels die 'compact city model' wat insluit : beheer oor stedelike uitbreiding, 'n verhoging in behuisingsdigthede en die aanmoediging van publieke vervoer. Die meriete van die model is egter nog net onderhewig gestel aan 'n geringe empiriese toetsing in Suid-Afrika. Hierdie artikel poog spesifiek na 'n bydrae tot die liggingsvraagstuk deur die empiriese toetsing van die hipotese : laekostebehuising gelee op die randgebied is duurder en minder voordelig tot die groter gemeenskap vergelykend met dieselfde behuising wat voorsien word in 'n meer sentrale ligging. Om die doel na te streef is 'n volhoubarebestaans-kostevoordelige model ontwikkel en toegepas in agt gesubsidieerde behuisingsontwikkelings in twee stede. Onderandere sluit die meetbare veranderlikes die volgende in : vervoerkoste, reistyd, petrolverbruik, toegang na werksgeleendhede en ander stedelike geleendhede en geriewe. Volgens die telling soos gemeet dui die uitslag daarop dat die meer gesentraliseerde ontwikkelings nie noodwendig beter presteer in die geheel as die ontwikkelings op dierandgebied nie. Dit word verklaar aan die hand van : Die polisentriese aard van ons stede; en Die relatiewe minder belangrikheid vir laerinkomstegroepe in terme van toegang tot formele werksgeleentheid nodussevergelykend met informele werksgeleendhede in of naby die lae-inkomste nedersetting en in middel- tot hoerinkomste residensieele areas. Addisioneel, die behoeftes van laeinkoste huishoudings verander oor tyd, wat voorstel dat geen enkele tipe ligging alle lae-inkomste huishoudings optimaal kan voorsien en bekostigbaar vir die huishouding en die regering is nie. Tsela/mokgwa wa ntshetsopele o bolokang ditjeho ho ntshetsha-pele kutlwisiso ya phapang/sekgeo se teng pakeng tsa matlo a theko di tlase le sebaka sa kaho Ho kgema le sekgahla sa kgatello ya kgolo ya diteropo le phaello e kgolo ya kaho e salletseng morao, dithuso tsa ditjhelete tsa matlo a theko di tlase le ditshebeletso di ne di fanwa ka sekgahla se seholo ka thoko/ntle ho diteropo tsa afrika borwa moo sebaka se leng theko ditlase ebile se fumaneha hanghang. Le ha tsela/mokgwa o na o ile wa babatswa ka hohlehohle ka moo o ileng wa aba ka potlako matlo a theko ditlase a diketekete (million), o ile wa kgeswa haholo ka ho ntshetsapele nyenyefatso ya ba kojwana-dimahetleng ka ho ba hanela ka menyetla e fumanwang diteropong letsela e telele ya dipalangwang, e nkang karolo e kgolo ya mekgolo ya bona, ebile e nka seabo tshebedisong e mpe ya menono ya naha le tshilafatsong ya tikoloho (greenhouse gas emissions). Tselana e nngwe e hlahisitsweng ke mofuta o kopaneng wa teropo, o kentseng polokeho ya ditjeho tsa kgolo e tlohang hare ho teropo, le keketso ya matlo sebakeng se le seng le kgothaletso ya tshebediso yadipalangwang tsa setjhaba. Dintle tsa mokgwa o na, le ha ho le jwalo, ke ho na di sa tswa kenngwa ditekong tsa tshebetso ka sekgahla se monyebe mona afrika borwa. Pampitshana e na e leka ho kenya letsoho diphehisong tsa 'dipotso tsa sebaka sa tulo' ('location question') ka ho kenya tekong tlhahiso ya hore matlo a theko di tlase a ahilweng ka ntle ho metse seteropo, a ditjeho di hodimo ebile ha a tswele setjhaba molemo ha a bapiswa le matlo a ahilweng ka hare ho metse seteropo. Hore se na se tle se kenngwe tshebetsong, mokgwa wa ntshetsopele o ditjeho di tlase o ile wa hlahiswa wa ba wa kenngwa tshebetsong dibakeng tse robedi tsa kaho tse tsheheditsweng ka ditjhelete diteropong tse pedi. Ka hara tse ding, tse ileng tsa kenngwa ditekong ke ditjeho tsa dipalangwang, nako e nkuwang leetong, tshebediso ya mafura a makoloi le menyetla ya mesebetsi, le menyetla le ditshebeletso tse ding tsa diteropong. Diphuputso di hlahisitse hore mofuta o kopaneng wa teropohantlentle ha o fete wa metse seteropo e ka ntle ho teropo ha e bapiswa. Tsena di totobaditswe ke : Ditsha tse fapaneng tse mmalwa tsa ditshebeletso tse fumanwang ka hare ho diteropo tsa rona; le Tlhokahalo e nyane ya menyetlaya malapa a fumanang mekgolo e tlaase ho isa ho basebetsi ba nako tsohlepapisong le basebetsi bao e seng ba nako tsohle ka hare ho, kapa pela dibakana tse theko di tlase le tse theko di mahareng ho isa ho tse theko di phahameng tsa tulo. Ho tlatseletsa tsena, ditlhoko tsa malapa a fumanang mekgolo e tlaase, ho fumanwe hore di fetofetoha ho ya ka dinako, ho hlahisang hore ha hotulo/sebaka se ka sebeletsang malapa a mekgolo e tlaase kaofela, se bile se le theko di tlaase ho malapa le mmuso.

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