A “Safe Haven”: Runaway Slaves, Mocambos, and Borders in Colonial Amazonia, Brazil

Abstract

A chapter in the saga of Portugal’s Atlantic discoveries can be reconstructed by following the trails blazed by the settlement of the colonial Amazon between the seventeenth and nineteenth centuries, particularly in the eastern border regions of Brazilian Guyana. This immense sector of the Amazon was known as Terras do Cabo Norte (Lands of North Cape) throughout most of the colonial period. Like other parts of the Amazon, it was not necessarily impervious to the process of colonization. While the metropole was paying close attention to the crates of sugar leaving the northeastern ports, missionaries and travelers ventured out and borders were demarcated in the far-flung corners of the vast Amazon region. In the beginning, the eastern Amazon was not occupied in economic terms, but it soon attracted the attention of the authorities in Portugal. Although scattered, some small forts were built, beginning in the seventeenth century. And they were not just Portuguese. Not far off, British and French forts also appeared. Interests and objectives were still being defined as settlers gradually arrived. The attention of merchants and colonial landowners was directed elsewhere. Meanwhile, indigenous groups of the region were moving in their own directions.In the far north of colonial Brazil, in what is now the state of Amapá, fugitives—blacks, Amerindians, and military deserters—played a leading role in the pursuit of freedom. Through their own acts, they reinvented meanings and constructed views of slavery and liberty. Moreover, they colonized and occupied vast swathes of the Amazon, particularly those on international colonial borders. Settlers arrived. Ships cast anchor. Economic calculations were made. Forts were built. Boundary markers were put in place. Laws and regulations were sent. Several kinds of adventures were beginning for the men and women in those parts.Fugitives created escape routes. Flight and the establishment of maroon societies (mocambos) in those borderlands took on new meanings. This article illuminates one aspect of the black experience in the Brazilian Guyana region during colonial times. Being a border area, “lessons of colonization” also resulted from the historical experiences of the mocambos and the transnational movement of fugitives. The experiences of the mocambos in the immense Amazon were unique. Their economy was predominantly extractive and until the middle of the century, indigenous labor—slave and free—was more prevalent than that of Africans and their descendents. Furthermore, environmental and geographic conditions, and the “agency” or role of indigenous groups, those in the missions and later in directory system controlled by representatives of the Portuguese crown, and the actions of military deserters altered the scope of possibilities and historical options for establishing mocambos in the Amazon than in other parts of colonial Brazil.1In 1621 the Portuguese crown created the state of Maranhão and Grão-Pará as an administrative unit under the direct control of Lisbon and separate from the state of Brazil. Until the mid-eighteenth century, this region encompassed the entire Portuguese Amazon, Ceará, and Piauí. The colonial government would only divide the areas of Maranhão and Grão-Pará into captaincies in the early second half of the 1700s.2In the initial days of settlement in Grão-Pará, the plantation system was attempted, primarily to grow sugar and tobacco. That experiment failed, mainly due to a lack of vital investments, the price of African labor, which was higher than in Bahia and Pernambuco, as well as epidemics and geographic difficulties. The region’s sugar and tobacco production was eventually destined for internal consumption. Producing aguardente was given priority, and an extractive economy was developed through the drogas do sertão (drugs of the wilderness): cocoa, vanilla, sarsaparilla, urucum, cloves, andiroba (Guyana crabwood), musk, amber, ginger, and piassava. There was also turtle fishing. Coins only began to circulate in Grão-Pará in the mid-eighteenth century. In the previous century, the pillars of the region’s economy rested on the gathering of forest products and indigenous labor. Everything depended on the Amerindians, who worked as guides, fishermen, hunters, bearers, and farinha makers. The region was sparsely settled and the tiny white population basically consisted of colonial civil servants.3Brazilian historiography has generally neglected the African presence in the the and has to the role of in The consisted of the the and of black The presence of African was to economic in the Amazon, only for In the who were and from colonial by historiography the of only to in was more to that region than and The by is that Africans and their were in the Amazon from the of the seventeenth century. The Africans to in Grão-Pará from the region between and were by the who on the of and the other colonial the African was in the to a lack of it was to that a of and on Grão-Pará would be by the of sugar from and from Maranhão and from the predominantly indigenous population was not an of labor, settlers to the crown that African were in that region. in through a to a by Portuguese an was to to Maranhão and Grão-Pará under a that The was not a by In the Cabo was to Africans to that region for a of African was between the seventeenth and early and Africans were to Grão-Pará, a small to the to Africans to the in the second half of the seventeenth century. The African to the Amazon was still and for African into Africans in Maranhão and Grão-Pará between and to parts of Settlers also that of Africans for Grão-Pará were to Maranhão and for the to were and were to In of the in the Amazon, that be most to out in the of it is to the of Africans the a unit of in the one to African the of to Africans to Grão-Pará, were in the colonial and Portuguese authorities and of and and merchants that they were and a the of Africans to to the Maranhão region in the second half of the was more which the for In of the areas of Grão-Pará that the most during that were to the of and the the in was more were in and the of Africans to Maranhão was in to this and on which the economy was would far-flung corners their would be as from the of in the regions of Grão-Pará, the black population a The in that began to grow in the second half of the century. This process resulted from the in that region. the of of Africans in Grão-Pará particularly through the of the do do Maranhão Grão-Pará African was on and through and who into the from other captaincies the Amazon region between and the in black was small Maranhão and other groups of would be to in parts of the colonial in the region of the state of indigenous was the of the the beginning of a the Africans and their descendents. for the of the of and small by and Amerindians, and worked by black and indigenous that black and worked on There were also and indigenous on small by the of calculations of that by were more and that they and their worked their and In the of in the later of the century, the black population was also on the in more as and the and missions in the areas of and the black a presence in the of the century. and to small and an economy indigenous and black black slavery in the Amazon in the second half of the and the of the nineteenth century, it was still far from the of plantation The sugar were in the region. In the of the century, the of sugar and were by small aguardente a of and it to the in that In were only in the entire of the of forts throughout the due to the of the particularly French and created a for and African Grão-Pará, the production of and and between and was an in the for it was in in from on a from the of the in the In were and on and in the region. That to in In of the colonial economy of Grão-Pará in the century. and the products cloves, sarsaparilla, and to products andiroba turtle and of a of and as a of or or indigenous developed in this vast colonial and and but were by destined for In Africans gradually indigenous In of the of the colonial Amazon, and of production were more than and not labor. The of in the is a of colonial in parts of the The an of and indigenous In production was as as than production for the of for the colonial the in the Amazon were and the production of for the century, this vast colonial a particularly to were kinds of missions and that small who consisted of and Amerindians, or of to the and and black who from they from the and their the to own they also the in the eastern the the and between areas and and other parts of the Portuguese the of the economy on African in colonial Grão-Pará is do is that the extractive economy and indigenous and in the still particularly were for internal consumption. In for the of of and of and The population of African was throughout the Amazon in the century. not only worked the by but also of the and the military that colonial areas of the Amazon were mocambos and fugitives. Furthermore, and the border was the that escape from Portuguese The borders were being the of particularly in the second half of the and borders the historical of this region from the and throughout the century. In of Grão-Pará, that between the Portuguese and French the of the seventeenth century. The to and was in that the French were known to as far as the of the Amazon and into In to the of that the French were to Cabo Norte to the of to the of Grão-Pará a from the French that of the of the Amazon and that for the of those for between the French and in the borderlands was a for for the Portuguese was by the of the In and in and military were to that eastern region of Grão-Pará the border French the most for the of merchants and indigenous groups, from the Portuguese and French of the border in of freedom. The a in the of which in this more to do it more and more to control and that There was between and their in that region. their to the the French and Portuguese authorities to other on In by a from the in That from the French and Portuguese by and the process of which was There was a of that the of that from French and from the of in fugitives. that the French not the of Furthermore, and missionaries also that their into The Portuguese authorities the French that the of to be In to French the authorities of Grão-Pará from their in French Guyana. The following the of the state of Maranhão to from who in Portuguese The Portuguese crown would who on their of the were and began to the Portuguese to the French that they would not be this not necessarily the The Portuguese the French of which to by the The of that the French authorities not to to The French not only they to their was that French the border regions to on and fugitives. The of the a for French and Portuguese authorities There were French to fugitives. The was more in a border region. In Portuguese and French and out on a on the to the by the of in In the was and and were that the of Portuguese and French and French settlers the borders to for Amerindians, and their In Portuguese authorities in Grão-Pará a from French following from the that to in in the border region. and and in the eastern Although the forest was a the escape they were and from to or to by or the region’s they the they to and the of their French In the of for the of were from or for the do not what as the and were and only the and were and to the In from that the on which be in the the and the of the that the were also While of Cabo that some black from and the of their was that by and and In the of a an who were from only of for Their were of the colonial and on Their were by a of from the was not for to to Grão-Pará from to The authorities also that were from in the region. be that escape in Although the French the of from Grão-Pará to was just as was In a French that in the authorities not were to and of they in their In from Grão-Pará were later in to the in and but they were in this and entire region was in by colonial and the establishment of mocambos were an of this There were of and were by The of which took later was in that on this In and in to on the French settlers in that region for some of The most is that that would not the the While fishermen, would to be for in the for mocambos was to be Although they were for of the colonial authorities in Grão-Pará were to on this the the from in that but that it well be this escape is a for an to to and who from and their mocambos close to the borders and throughout the than the forest the borderlands were a for Portuguese a close on the to Guyana and the on the in an to from leaving and French settlers from the was the vast to be While Cabo who from and were in a for to until they they were and The borderlands were not only a geographic but also a and economic in the they to groups, an economy and other In it was that from the forts being in Amapá, and it was to that they to the in the of and and Although it not to a they on the of Amerindians, and other of the they the of the of in in that who escape would be of those borderlands were settled by groups, and was that was a on The in those regions A to the that the a and other they for of the from the they to the of this from they not only the but also and colonial authorities were the mocambos of the Amazon, particularly those in the In they to to out the mocambos and to the of to fugitives. that was an on the in black north they were by The mocambos began to and north to and to in the vast of that mocambos were In of that their were being by who in between and the French and other were not a or a were a that the colonial authorities of on the of colonial in in on of the border a by this from the of the who to and to who took to a they the of do was that is to in their as they were who were they not and to and The and the to they were the of also they were in the mocambos in the region as well as in the borderlands and the French to the were and and they their to the French they In the they was also a by the and it was who and they that some of the were they to for the and for the French to a to the their and their were and the Grão-Pará authorities were by this The than a close on French and and close to the border French also their own economic and to French also the of during the and but not to the to only the of their own the they to to the was the but has the for of the who Furthermore, they a on the they and they the from one to the for French to was the but the were from In other they were well that their on the of the were in Portuguese but in French they the to and they in the and and they they half their on the for they This was by the who from this to escape and and to the that and the Portuguese but and in a of the French on the other The of this was by the border on a which not and through for other were the of and they The authorities were the that were they not be and to their they be from to that they which they do in they on the they for of is a to experiences of other on the colonial borders in the also The maroon of on which for a the and French from their geographic for authorities to the and of most of were from the French of the a the for maroon groups between the settlers and the and French authorities in that border region. and on the and of the of French to the mocambos the border French those in the were a the most and mocambos were by it was that was a of from the and and that they were In the of Grão-Pará that military were to or and mocambos in areas the In was the mocambos in that region. it was that the of that mocambos a and that groups of the of a to the of to of the mocambos on the were by in began the The of the of were by the of that they not their the the beginning of that were in the not far from the and one of were in by by their that they to other who from that and the of their were to out and out in they to the farinha they would be for their and of the mocambos on the The to a escape to more the This to the military it a black the of a was that the of the of the and the The authorities were well of the the and in that they were to was in to be one of the of and to and was an the only one who from but in the they to the to and the that was own escape and to to This was In to an escape for a of an that the between the of and be in days the it would be to the The were of by as to this it is far and the the of the from the to was well was a an by and that and was the of the the the of That is the and Although they not or in colonial Brazilian and their to military of from also and the of that that were the women and or from those would The were from In economic terms, the and that some of were a and their that they far as soon as they were by this to what they and were The was on the for and far from the they to in the forest for a in of the authorities were and their economic they were not to and the of to and There was an entire this to the not who the to to the of only do a the and only the of the and in of to that were not being as to the of the mocambos or escape not to they soon for they the and of their And the that do do and was the of this can the to of mocambos from their to the authorities The only who for a to the of who in the mocambos for a and to those and to their and for the more but they into and as they as for in this can the of the who and who was this to the was well of that the in the that of and is by the and as soon as they from the or the of the they it to the who the In also that the of also to Furthermore, they to the to to the but this was a and the to that an the would be the of their they was more than one on the A of groups out and small of of was not the only between There also be some being and more some only Africans and in groups, which was the the which was to as being of the was by those who from the for mocambos to the authorities in In the of the seventeenth century, the Portuguese between the of the and on other in that border were of who were eventually by but to by the There were also of and military of were in the was that were of Amerindians, as the one on the and that for or or And on the were and in and the of the nineteenth century, the of mocambos and the of that it was that groups of be the The was to a of to of the the from the Grão-Pará and Portuguese colonial authorities to In of and it was that would be the most to the in the and were not the only The Amazon particularly those in the to an and as for transnational The forest would more In the of the Amazon the and and were were not in their The that indigenous and settlers in parts of the Amazon borderlands the of which were by In to the by and black in areas of the immense colonial Amazon, it is to and the of indigenous The of and their mocambos in Grão-Pará a more Africans were can also be that the indigenous of was also by the African in some and by Amerindians, Africans and their created their escape and mocambos and in the The indigenous groups those borderlands than and and by and later by colonial In were missions to indigenous groups, and and The on the particularly in the early of the century, was by that they would the indigenous groups the the and the the and colonial The French authorities that they in the of in the the they that the in that and that groups were the they were it on their Several in that was the of indigenous groups of and In it was that indigenous groups in the borderlands their own and their own from one to the of and one an was to the to were of or In that were in that who from were in and in the of in the borderlands indigenous groups the establishment of and from This it to and international on the of borders. In the in the of were still being it was to the authorities that the who to to the French in Portuguese of or not they entire indigenous in the borderlands were a and were one would the following of the of in is that that in the that is more is between the of

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