The genus Homo evolved its pronounced encephalization through postnatal extension of the high rate of brain growth that characterizes all primates in utero. Linked to this extension was delayed development, which represented an enormous ecological sacrifice because it produced the longest postnatal interval of physical helplessness in the Mammalia and forced mothers to carry infants. Graphs relating brain growth to body growth indicate a pongid pattern of development for gracile australopithecines, implying that infants could cling to mothers whose forelimbs were occupied with climbing. Also present were several postcranial traits that would have made the adults more adept climbers than modern humans. Habitual use of these inherited traits is suggested by the fact that evolution failed to eliminate certain ones, such as short legs and long pedal phalanges, that impeded terrestrial locomotion. Moreover, the intensity of predation by large, swift, social carnivores must have compelled australopithecines to use trees as refuges, in the manner of chimpanzees and baboons; australopithecines probably also gathered some of their food in trees. Gracile australopithecines failed to expand their brain size, experiencing general evolutionary stasis for more than 1.5 m.y. I propose that this stability resulted from these animals' semiarboreal mode of life: First, their postcranial morphology remained compromised by selection pressures to maintain both terrestrial and arboreal adaptations. Second, by requiring that neonates be mature enough to cling to mothers, obligate arboreal activity precluded encephalization of the kind that characterizes Homo; this evolutionary constraint has previously been overlooked. In contrast to australopithecines, early Homo approached H. erectus in pelvic configuration and brain size. A new brain-body growth curve for early Homo indicates extension of the fetal pattern well into the postnatal interval, implying that neonates were highly immature so that adults had to be fully terrestrial. Homo evolved shortly after the onset of the modern ice age about 2.5 Ma. Fossil pollen and carbon isotopes in paleosols record a contraction of forests in Africa at this time. I propose that this represented a crisis that led to the evolution of Homo by compelling some australopithecine populations to adopt a fully terrestrial existence. Although ecologically difficult, this behavioral restriction finally made possible encephalization through the evolution of delayed development. During the ecological crisis, a large brain evolved in at least one population of gracile australopithecines. An advanced tool industry and cunning behavior were of such great adaptive value for avoiding predators and expanding food resources on the ground that selection for encephalization soon overrode the problems imposed by helpless infants. The fossil record of antelopes and micromammals provides a test of the idea that environmental forcing opened the way for the evolution of Homo: both of these groups experienced heavy extinction of forest-adapted species about 2.5–2.4 Ma and a rapid proliferation of species adapted to unforested habitats. The transformation of the hominid clade during Plio-Pleistocene time did not follow a simple pattern. Homo may have arisen either by anagenetic transformation of a “bottlenecked” species or by speciation, and it may not have evolved immediately with the onset of climatic change. Furthermore, just as a few forest-adapted antelope species survived the biotic crisis, a small-brained gracile taxon with arboreal adaptations may have persisted to the start of the Pleistocene. Robust australopithecines survived into the Pleistocene, perhaps because a broad vegetarian diet reduced their need to migrate frequently between home bases. With their extinction in mid-Pleistocene time, about the time that savannahs became widespread, only Homo remained.
Stored only when both papers are in the corpus — 93 citations exist upstream.