Public policies and legal decisions implemented during the 1980s have created new incentives for universities, publiclysupported nonprofit institutes, and their faculties to commercialize scientific and medical research. Academic-industry and nonprofitfor-profit collaborations have led to the development of revised institutional norms that accommodate new organizational relationships. Among the most pronounced changes, which have been documented in a number of research studies, are that secrecy has replaced openness, privatization of knowledge has replaced communitarian values, and the commodification of discovery has replaced the norm that university-generated knowledge is a free good that is part of the intellectual commons.
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