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Matthew D. O'Hara is Associate Professor of History at the University of California, Santa Cruz. He is the author of A Flock Divided: Race, Religion, and Politics in Mexico, 1749–1857 (Duke University Press, 2010) and co-editor with Andrew B. Fisher of Imperial Subjects: Race and Identity in Colonial Latin America (Duke University Press, 2009). This article is part of a new project on the history of time in colonial and nineteenth-century Mexico. An image of Christ crucified found in a small guidebook used by religious sodalities in New Spain known as Santas Escuelas de Cristo, or Holy Schools of Christ. Cartilla breve de los rudimentos mas necesarios que debe observar el discípulo de Christo, Nuestro Señor y maestro (Mexico City, 1797). The Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley. In the waning years of the eighteenth century, groups of men gathered once a week to create a macabre setting in some of Mexico City's churches. Usually in an oratory or chapel, they spent the afternoon meticulously preparing for a meeting with other devotees. They covered the windows with thick drapes, blocking all light from the fading day. They lit candles that gave the room a faint glow. Soon their spiritual brothers entered this dim and quiet space, leaving the bustle of the city outside. As the door closed behind them, they glimpsed familiar objects through the flicker of candlelight. At the front of the room, an altar supported a simple, unadorned image of Mary. At the foot of the altar rested two skeletons and manojos de disciplina, whips and bundles of switches that the brothers would soon use to lash their own flesh in a collective act of mortification. In front of the skeletons was a low bench, from which the leader of their group, the padre de obediencia, directed the evening's proceedings. The padre sat behind a table that held an assortment of practical and symbolic items: the group's bylaws, papers with the night's spiritual meditations, a watch, a handbell, a font of holy water, and another skeleton. The other brothers sat upon low benches placed along the chapel walls. A final bench dominated the center of the room, reserved for the brothers who had been selected to receive a spiritual examination later in the evening.1 The men attending such gatherings belonged to religious brotherhoods known as Santas Escuelas de Cristo, or Holy Schools of Christ.2 The Holy Schools had a long presence in New Spain, with a handful of chapters in Mexico City beginning in the first decades of the eighteenth century. The groups then expanded dramatically over the next fifty years. By 1800, Mexico City had twelve Santas Escuelas; another two could be found in the city of Querétaro, and more than a dozen in other provincial cities and towns, including Puebla, Jalapa, San Miguel el Grande, and Guanajuato.3 Beyond their institutional history, the groups' physical practices also had precedents in New Spain, where collective devotions and penitential mortification enjoyed a long and robust history. At first blush, however, they appear to be far out of step with a religious current then flowing through the cities of the viceroyalty. In the second half of the eighteenth century, members of the church hierarchy began to support a more austere and reflective religiosity, “one that elevated the virtues of self-discipline and moderation and focused on a direct, personal relationship to God.”4 Above all, this reformed piety emphasized one's individual responsibility for salvation, an assumption that undermined the spiritual utility of New Spain's many collective religious practices. Some of the Spanish elite enthusiastically adopted this new religious sensibility, its theological foundations, and the practices that it demanded.5 Precisely the same population—that is, ethnic Spaniards of substantial wealth or status—dominated the Santa the of reformed the Santas Escuelas and their out as of a and of religious a spiritual that with New Spain's and a Spanish of religious In an to out and the of the the of reformed to practices and to the of the Holy of collective which and to be such an for individual and collective at a time of religious the of New Spain, in of the relationship the and the that and The of the Santas Escuelas to many groups and religious sodalities in colonial Latin to on of than spiritual the Escuelas and of their piety practices that and religious and including collective the of and physical practices with the religious and theological to the In the spiritual of the the the it in an to a this held the that their would in the it the of and ethnic and all, it a more Beyond an of the however, the Holy a to the of the groups' the of The practices of the Holy Schools a to was at with in this in the to the Holy is as an of or a with of religious and The of the is and it a for the colonial in Latin America and would a for the and of the the of a a collective of the and an piety of the In this the would from reformed to their a more on the an through the practices of collective all of its In the it would the members of the Santas Escuelas and their as colonial their of religious and was and of its In the of the Holy however, such an more than it it to the relationship and of the of time as the the is a of for the this is the to of the Santas which to as a for to such groups through the or the many of which a of is the of An is that the to on and and from and on the out the of some of which to be in they been at and at practices could be of In all of as a of a and the with other of it more to the to the and and practices as or and the in that a new the of once they on a the on their in the and of practices. to the in this history the practices and that the Escuelas to to new also their The of religious in other from the same that and a in of that the As out in of is also a and as to as other In a of as as or the to could to to the relationship and In the of the Holy first in on the of of the of more than and in in some at it be than that or to the the as and the more that the of as in the and of by the Santas Escuelas a their as be of the and of they part of the for the of religious that in New The that and new religious to church and and that and placed and of the and the of practices the to in this to the in of the Holy Schools in the of their and with their own as they with church and In it would been for the of the Holy Schools to the of their which would be of they to as of the the Holy the of and in an a of to and they also an of and to In which to a the religious and the of the Holy used to the practices of the to current to and the of practices for In the in the Santas Escuelas of spiritual and that to new for their and for the who supported Some colonial had more to and such than and it is that Spaniards New Spain's in a that was by is that the Holy Schools and their was ethnic Spanish members or Spaniards in the and from Spain to as in New Spanish or a part of the Spaniards of and the of ethnic been an to Spanish at a time some Spaniards the of In a of Escuelas as many of the groups began to an of their spiritual The of Escuelas their project as of spiritual and in which and in would from in a Holy the and of the Spanish who the of chapters the of the same by and of the history, and and the for The first to the of is that the of the Santas Escuelas in the cities and of New Spain the second half of the eighteenth century, at the of the this the and its to create a new relationship with their with more by the and Spaniards than Spanish or other and more flowing to the They also to or they to be a or use of in the or As part of this the to and the to its the of new religious in its including in the of New Spain, a the that would Mexico. This supported the and the of the the to the to the including the and its the to the and the of religious of all held by the church and that and to the that such the of and the The also focused on religious practices that this the the support of the church a of and to in they to be the of piety in New Spain, which could from to in of a to In church with such of religious in New Spain, placed on out practices. de of Mexico from to and a of other in the church a then in some in in the of the of the religious that a of in which individual on the of from This to a of in some more than held that in some from this theological the of As a some from the and Spanish such as by such they many of the practices that had to over the a more The that religious practices and to the of New they the from the the to the the they that could be directed more In for the of Mexico de y for moderation in the of the a on and then in the groups of men and to the where the their they to the of of the of to in the the of the who the the to some to the the of the current from as its The and of this all in the or in the religious this far from to an to and the is, and all one's that the more than the This is the that to to the the in the at collective as by New Spain's which in the and of cities such as Mexico. In their practices for their to the of religious such with of religious found it to practices or in of a of religious or In the of church and in this of religious theological the to and collective religious they and the to from religious In practical the two of the a of is this and that the Santas Escuelas of the eighteenth appear At the same time that the and church began to many of collective religious they the Santas Escuelas and enthusiastically supported the of the in Mexico City and other and a more and physical of they also new Santas groups that an part of a collective for the Spanish and that of New Spanish that supported the new the Santas a of the Escuelas to the in colonial religious The of the support of the Santas Escuelas be to the groups' also to the that practices. the and collective of the church all, the of the was a and religious they that of New Spain's collective was by the and by its in the or religious and by the of the the other a or could spiritual as de in the of the mortification and a at the table of religious the long as they could be and their could be directed and In this the Santas for the who and the who them, from their also from their Santas Escuelas the piety by including a reflective and religious that individual with that the of the and and which to the of religious in New By the with the and the of the collective with a on the the Santas Escuelas an for a project of spiritual and at a time and undermined and other religious By the second half of the eighteenth century, the of religious their in the Spanish Santas Escuelas had for a in Spain An and a of Spaniards the first de in in the had been their and spiritual the of in the de los which the bylaws, which would later be and expanded by de y upon to Spain as the of In the in beginning support of the Escuelas and their The Spanish Escuelas an institutional and that the groups' to New Spain the eighteenth century, their and piety and enjoyed and New Spain's Escuelas used the from the Holy in the Spanish city of and as the eighteenth and a for the of new They also a of the used by the Spanish The in New Spain the and church began their of religious the first of Mexico City's Holy Schools in the of in and another in the city by along with in San Miguel el Grande, in New Spain's and however, and another in the and at in other provincial cities and towns, at the that church and began to the utility of some of collective religious and and to from other religious In the and the of New Spain's Escuelas in the final decades of the eighteenth By the beginning of in more than Escuelas had and church in New the of New Spain's Escuelas to the of the history and the of the support of the as they expanded in the second half of the century. to of and the Holy the hierarchy supported the piety of the also the such piety was and the that it was in the Holy Schools and their to and they the groups to in out a for the Holy Schools to to Santas Escuelas in New Spain, Santas Escuelas in New Spain, The members of the Santas Escuelas spiritual on by San the in and its of the The emphasized collective and of spiritual and along with and in the an practices to where Spaniards adopted The the which its members to and the Santas Escuelas in Spain and New the of the Santas Escuelas had an de who would New Spain's spiritual at along with Santas Escuelas the was a of the in the of San Miguel el An the two however, was that the Escuelas out to and to their spiritual and their for the Escuelas the of the and used the at to The church hierarchy and the Holy to the with this of the presence of San their their and all with the holy practices of and in the of the Holy in the by de y The Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley. The Santas a of more than and for a of a that the of the of the at was also to that the the and by spiritual practices. In the Escuelas from other sodalities that they religious in groups and could the of their In the members of Santas Escuelas to a and spiritual that was supported by a of The of The of this is to to and spiritual of the and of to own and and for the of and which and in the for the and for the of this for the and to a to in the to the Escuelas to of the of the groups in the eighteenth century, the of brothers from fifty to two their the Escuelas a of that individual and collective once a week to its a of spiritual that of a of religious examination known as the and collective or The as the as where the Escuelas their of individual through collective spiritual to a in the of in Mexico City, the Santas Escuelas could be from other religious other groups and sodalities in the of religious the Escuelas a of that virtues on the of their reformed their in the and the of In this that the Escuelas their members to on and to out in that they the of individual members in their and the of the the of wealth and group's A of the in New Spain, the of the Santas to the on who gathered in a of spiritual The brothers of the Santas the also all as the as the as the as the as the as the all all the the as as a and on the part of some their two the Santas practices to with the religious and of the and church of the a piety that individual responsibility for spiritual and the of of the physical as a for one's spiritual The religious examination penitential and an known as the de in emphasized a collective project of and used physical piety to this however, the individual and of the as The of the piety was a to spiritual of the y de as a more to the is to physical it “one more the than the collective practices to the spiritual and of the part of the to to in another of the with the of the and church the Santas Escuelas to than or new who would be more of and of the The Escuelas of New Spain enjoyed the support of church and a more and that they would the spiritual of New Spain's as as the of the was a the of this in New Spain and the of the the had in Spain and New Spain, and to the of the in the century. The create the in other it and it to new A more would be to of and in an of and The or in of the they who had a of spiritual an in part on a to an more the which the brothers the of the Escuelas and the to spiritual The was a a that was to the by the At the the padre de brothers to the bench at the center of the He then selected of the brothers to the other The to they had the spiritual and other by the in the The brothers also their personal to the spiritual The was of the Santa padre de this would be from other in which the spiritual The brothers found the it the of spiritual As another the and the and and of in front of of At the of the the padre de gave spiritual and an act of that was the members of the the of the with a of collective disciplina, all the candles in the room and the the of and other it was a the the and a more individual act than the of the the the de part of the collective for individual for and the of the The of the Escuelas the brothers of the of the of one's and the of for one's and The de a for a and the the brothers on their in the is, once a brothers of a and for their own They a that their and in on and and and for their own and of the The with the of a for their to was of a of The of the Escuelas in New Spain's in a to out of the in the their collective and physical the Santas Escuelas of New Spain in practices that their and individual religious As a the Escuelas from the and religious practices that in the and of New Spain's They or other practices in their time the brothers they this is more and and its practices of mortification and By the collective practices of the to the of the the groups to create an their and spiritual and they and the church hierarchy to be the more of the where the and the Escuelas part in and that was some their and their church and and such In of the of an part in a in New Spain, it is that the brothers penitential and that their individual the brothers of the Escuelas their their as part of the on individual and also part of their it to their as of In the brothers of and the of their spiritual the in the the brothers used of to their spiritual of or the of a on religious and church the this of the brothers on a or by a a to the spiritual for the week through from their small and piety the physical mortification that later in the The that the the brothers of the and physical which to their and is of the of this it which to the of the and of its on the of the A from the the it its a on the is more than to with and for a to or to the In other the of was spiritual the of The brothers of the Escuelas the and they to an they the on the of the and in reformed individual A or on and Holy members to such the day. de y de Christo, de y (Mexico City, The Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley. In this the Holy Schools used than and mortification. Spanish such as of the and of to the to the of the as they was it could be to other the of the and one's of the for held that and of all and of and as had The and of closed a with one's a and with than to the In the Escuelas mortification and they and could to a of and the mortification and its a the a to with Christ and their was a of the that upon an religious it to create a and a that spiritual and the that the Santas Escuelas to a more spiritual through practices was by their spiritual The of for who to they of or on the part of a the and the brothers their in the of the which individual the of a and to it the for individual of one's spiritual They also undermined the groups' to the at a the and by the of the Escuelas and the the spiritual In to such the Santas practices the to the of the a to from religious a of and that the Escuelas of New Spain from their Spanish in to the of the including who as in Mexico City and a was in the colonial held the of to who was than in that many of the brothers of the groups' wealth and Spanish also that the Escuelas a to the of New Spain's would as or more spiritual would as The Holy Schools of Mexico City and by members to found new including in the city Spanish another to more also that in the Escuelas would the of and to the A to the of Mexico that the supported the Escuelas for and practical they piety and reformed the and of As many and their by of such Holy and the who out some for the of their their at the same time the of with which they their and The Santas Escuelas of New Spain as they enjoyed the support of the Spanish and the church at with another in the eighteenth century. of collective piety and mortification that by some of the eighteenth century, the Escuelas the of religious and In spiritual they a piety that was by and from religious practices. They also emphasized and of one's and religious which by of the In they a of that was to the and of their In the Escuelas supported the to and out of the and its they to Holy Schools or found new the of and moderation in anoth
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