Pontifex Maximus: from Augustus to Gratian – and Beyond

Abstract

This article explores the development of the imperial title pontifex maximus from Emperor Augustus (12 BC) to fourth-century Emperor Gratian (382 AD) as well as the transformation of the title into that of pontifex inclitus after Gratian. Following the precedent of Augustus, every emperor down to Gratian (d. 383) was pontifex maximus. The title pontifex maximus formed a standing element in the imperial titulature, usually in first place in the litany of titles. The article demonstrates that the title pontifex maximus was modified into pontifex inclitus from Gratian on. Christian emperors were anxious to eliminate the pagan associations of pontifex maximus but they were reluctant to give up their traditional claim to priestly authority.

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