Understanding hammerscale: the use of high-speed film and electron microscopy

D. L. Dungworth · Roger Wilkes

13 citations0/0 files storedHistorical Metallurgy

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Metallurgy and Cultural Artifacts Metallurgical Processes and Thermodynamics Cultural Heritage Materials Analysis

Abstract

Hammerscale is the product of high-temperature oxidation of iron alloys and it is particularly associated with the forging of iron. Due to its magnetic properties hammerscale is easily recovered from archaeological contexts. While most hammerscale consists of flakes of iron oxide, a small proportion consists of spheres. This paper presents the results of the microscopic examination and chemical analysis of both flake and spheroidal hammerscale from archaeological contexts as well as material recovered during experimental forging and welding. In addition, the experimental fire-welding of iron has been recorded using high-speed digital video. This demonstrates that spheroidal hammerscale is produced during forge welding. The chemical analysis of the experimental hammerscale shows that it is formed from oxidized iron with a small but significant contribution from the non-metallic inclusions in the metal.

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