In 1892 William James informed a group of teachers attending his lecture series in Cambridge, Massachusetts, that “psychology is a science, and teaching is an art; and sciences never generate arts directly out of themselves.” Moreover, James added, knowing psychology was not a “guarantee” that someone would be a good teacher. The issue, in James's mind, was not whether psychology should be able to give teachers “radical help,” but whether it could. In his view, qualities such as “tact and ingenuity” that teachers needed to know what to do with real pupils in complex classroom situations were “things to which psychology cannot help us in the least” (James, 1958, pp. 23–24).
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