This chapter argues that cultural adaptation can yield qualitatively different outcomes than those predicted from conventional fitness optimizing theory, even if one assumes that the capacity for culture has been shaped solely by natural selection acting on genetic variation. It presents the circumstances under which culture is superior to genetic transmission and individual learning as a means of adaptation. The chapter argues that there are processes of cultural adaptation that lead to different outcomes than would be predicted based on fitness maximization, but are nonetheless favored by natural selection because they make social learning more effective. It also argues that some cultural processes may lead to "maladaptive" outcomes, but only if guided variation and direct bias are weak forces. When cultural variation is transmitted nonparentally, natural selection may favor genetically maladaptive cultural variants.
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