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Civic action, the coordinated activities of urban dwellers, has been recognized as an important feature in urban development by a number of urban theorists (Castells, 1983; Douglass and Friedmann, 1998). The significance of collective (rather than individual) action was popularized by Putman’s (1993) study of Italy and his analysis of the role of social capital within economic development. For urban theorists, the ongoing role of social movements in influencing the governance of cities has long been recognized, as has the significant role of socially motivated agents such as non-governmental organizations (NGOs).
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