The projection of implicit and explicit goals

Abstract

In 3 studies, the authors analyzed whether projection occurs for both conscious and nonconscious goals.In Experiment 1, participants who were predisposed to hold a learning goal over a performance goal rated others as possessing more of a learning goal.In Experiment 2, participants who were either implicitly primed with or explicitly assigned to have the goal to compete perceived others as striving for competitive goals more than control participants.In Experiment 3, the authors demonstrated that it was the actual goal to compete rather than the trait construct of competitiveness that was projected.The control of automatic goal projection effects is discussed, and interpersonal consequences of goal projection are delineated.In its most general sense, projection refers to ascribing one's own characteristics onto others.The classical definition of projection, though, refers to a more motivational process by which individuals ascribe their own negative characteristics onto others, while also denying these same characteristics in themselves (Freud, 1915(Freud, /1953)).In this sense, projection acts as a defense mechanism that lessens the discomfort caused by possession of these undesirable characteristics by thrusting "forth upon the external world whatever within itself gives rise to pain [i.e., the process of projection]" (Freud, 1915(Freud, /1953, p. 78), p. 78). Types of ProjectionAccording to D. S. Holmes (1968), there are two main dimensions of projection: one that deals with the content of what is being projected and the other that deals with the awareness of possessing the projected personal characteristics.Regarding the content dimension of projection, individuals can either project onto others the exact same attribute that they possess (e.g., Eric is generous, and he also sees others as being generous) or they can project onto others an attribute that bears a causal relation to the one that they possess (e.g., Eric is frightened, and he sees others as frightening).Regarding the awareness dimension of projection, the projector is either aware or not aware of possessing the personal characteristic that is being projected.On the basis of these two dimensions (i.e., content and awareness), Holmes (1968;Holmes & McCaul, 1989) discusses three types of projection: attributive, complementary, and similarity projection.In attributive projection, an individual possesses a certain attribute, is aware that he or she possesses it, and then projects it onto another person (Bramel, 1963;Edlow & Kiesler, 1966;Feshbach & Singer, 1957).In similarity projection, an individual possesses a certain attribute and projects it onto another person but is not aware of its possession.And last, in complementary projection, the individual possesses a certain attribute, is aware of possessing it, and then projects the cause of it onto others.For all of these types of projection, it is assumed that the person remains unaware of the projection process.Past research has found support for the existence of complementary projection, demonstrating that frightened individuals see others as more frightening (Feshbach & Feshbach, 1963;Feshbach & Singer, 1957) and that individuals who are placed in an electric chair see others as being more dangerous and threatening (Hornberger, 1960).Ample empirical support also exists for attributive projection (e.g., a helpful person will see others as more helpful), as people are found to see others as they see themselves (Sherman, Presson, & Chassin, 1984).For instance, research on the false

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