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This paper presents a study of directionality in word-class changing affixation. Specifically, it addresses the various semantic criteria proposed in Marchand (1964) for directionality in conversion as applied to a sample of affixation in English. The semantic criteria by Marchand have frequently been pointed out in the literature but have not been studied in detail in either conversion or affixation. The aim is to determine whether these criteria are applicable in overt affixation, where directionality does not seem to pose a problem (because, unless back-formation is attested, the affix signals the directionality of the process), or whether the criteria fail to apply even to these cases.
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