un-il2 (“Menials”) as a Serflike Social Stratum during the Ur III Period

Abstract

Abstract This article addresses social stratification during the Ur III period (ca. 2100–2000 BCE), particularly in southern Babylonia. The social strata are analyzed as Weberian orders (Stände), also known as status groups. More specifically, this article focuses on un -il 2 as a serflike order in comparison to free citizens and enslaved people. While un -il 2 can be translated as “menial(s),” which is preferrable to how they are sometimes translated as “carrier(s),” the term may literally mean “people supporter(s).” un -il 2 were distinguished socially and economically from citizens and slaves, while sharing features with both. Like citizens, they were legally free, worked and probably lived with their families, and were compensated better than slaves and sometimes certain citizens. Like slaves, they were subjected to full-time mandatory work with often low compensation. Overall, they had less economic autonomy and stability than citizens but more so than slaves. As such, they can be considered serflike but not fully enslaved and are therefore a compelling example of people with statuses between citizens and slaves, economically and legally. While this article examines a variety of features regarding un -il 2 , their economic conditions are the most understood. Extensive details concerning subsistence and tenant lands are provided, especially their sizes and yields for citizens and un -il 2 . Unsurprisingly, citizens were allotted more subsistence land on average than un -il 2 were allotted. The plots citizens were allotted also tended to have better yields. Surprisingly, there is one known example of a wealthier un -il 2 renting tenant land, which was otherwise rented by mostly citizens. Based on these data, it is evident that citizens could generally sustain themselves and accumulate wealth, whereas most un -il 2 were impoverished, though not as much as slaves.

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