Religious tourism, volunteering, and online footprints: an actor–network theory analysis

Abstract

Volunteering in religious tourism provides a distinctive form of engagement, allowing tourists to actively participate in spiritual practices while contributing to the daily operations of religious sites. However, most research to date has focused on structured programmes within Abrahamic traditions, leaving the informal, culturally embedded volunteering practices in Eastern religions underexplored. This study addresses that gap by analysing digital content shared by Chinese tourists on RedNote and Weibo, documenting their volunteering experiences at Buddhist and Taoist temples. Applying actor-network theory (ANT) alongside actor-mapping and thematic–visual analysis, the research traces how human and non-human actants, including volunteer tourists, temple staff, religious artifacts, digital platforms, and regulatory systems, interact within evolving, interconnected networks. The findings introduce the concept of the ‘Fourth Space’, a nuanced digital environment where tourists negotiate identity, labour, and faith under conditions of surveillance, censorship, and peer monitoring. This concept extends ANT by revealing how agency and participation are cautiously performed in restricted digital spheres. Practically, the study proposes culturally sensitive strategies for volunteer management, digital governance, and labour ethics while acknowledging limitations in data representativeness. It calls for future cross-cultural, mixed-method research to unpack how digital platforms mediate participation and power in global religious tourism.

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