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Problem: American planning expertise is routinely transferred to the developing world, but there is very little systematic reflection on the experiences and outcomes of such transfers, especially on innovations and their diffusion in the host countries. Purpose: I consider how ideology, values, and paradigms lead to innovation and the role of local circumstances in shaping such innovation and their diffusion. Methods: I use both published and unpublished archival materials to document and analyze American planning expeditions to India immediately after India's independence. Results and conclusions: I focus on three case studies over a period of 25 years (1949–1974): Albert Mayer's original plan for Chandigarh, done at the behest of Prime Minister Nehru; the 1962 Delhi Master Plan by the Ford Foundation team; and the 1966 Basic Development Plan for Calcutta (now Kolkata), also by the Ford Foundation team. I find that along with planning expertise the Americans brought their own ideologies and predilections. When the local context affected these, the results were innovative. Although not always successful in anticipating how local politics and institutions would impede implementation, the planners nevertheless sought and produced important planning innovations. However, because they did not build Indian capability, diffusion of these innovations was limited. Takeaway for practice: Although practitioners will always be influenced by their own values, when they are also affected by local expectations, local knowledge, and local collaboration, the resulting innovations become more appropriate to their context. The diffusion of such innovations depends on developing appropriate implementation strategies, institutional structures, and long- term training and research capabilities at the local level. Research support: None.
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