Birth Cohort Differences in Self-Esteem, 1988–2008: A Cross-Temporal Meta-Analysis

Brittany Gentile · Jean M. Twenge · William Keith Campbell

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Personality Traits and Psychology Psychometric Methodologies and Testing Cultural Differences and Values

Abstract

Three meta-analyses find increases over the generations in Rosenberg Self-Esteem scale (RSE) scores between 1988 and 2008 among American middle school ( d = 0.78, n = 10,119), high school ( d = 0.39, n = 16,669), and college students ( d = 0.30, n = 28,918). The changes are consistent with an increasing emphasis on self-worth in American culture and, for high school students, with small increases in academic competence over time. College students’ scores change only when the RSE is administered with a 4-point Likert scale with no midpoint. By 2008, a score of 40 (perfect self-esteem) was the modal response of college students, chosen by 18% of participants; 51% scored 35 or over. Given these shifts in responses, the possibility of revising the RSE is discussed.

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1965Society and the Adolescent Self-Image 1891The Principles of Psychology 2013Handbook of Social Psychology 1979Conceiving the self 1955A study of normative and informational social influences upon individual judgment.2003Does High Self-Esteem Cause Better Performance, Interpersonal Success, Happiness, or Healthier Lifestyles?1995The Handbook of Research Synthesis.2001Measuring Global Self-Esteem: Construct Validation of a Single-Item Measure and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale

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