The Effect of Mental Practice on the Performance Achievement of High School Trombonists

Abstract

This study investigated effectiveness of mental practice on performance achievement of high school trombonists and relationships among locus of control, audiation and performance achievement. A volunteer sample of high school trombonists (N = 20) were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 treatment groups: (a) control-physical practice, (b) goal representation-imagining ideal sound, (c) production representation-imagining physical processes of performance, and (d) current representation-reflective listening during performance. The dependent variable, performance achievement, was measured by an adaptation of Watkins-Farnum Performance Scale (1954), and Performance Rating Scale Supplement developed by Zdzinski (1993). Internal consistency of all measures ranged from r= .68 to .99. Interjudge reliabilities for both performance measures ranged from r = .94 to .98. An ANCOVA, with pre-test scores as covariate, revealed no significant differences among groups on post-test performance scores. Pearson correlations revealed significant relationships (r= .46 to .52) between audiation and performance achievement. Music educators are constantly seeking more efficient and effective means of developing their student's musical practice skills. As positive playing habits are essential in creating a quality musical performance, students should also be taught diverse and creative problem solving methods if they are to achieve success. Incorporating a variety of practice strategies would increase likelihood of success and use of mental practice is one such strategy that may be particularly beneficial (Maynard, 2004; Ross, 1985). Mental practice in music performance can be defined as the covert or imaginary rehearsal of a skill without muscular movement or sound (Coffman, 1990, p. 187). Both quantity and quality of practice are factors that may influence success (Sloboda et al., 1986; Williamon & Valentine, 2000). For example, differences have been found between informal and deliberate practicing (Lehmann & Ericsson, 1997, etc.). Informal practice is generally more exploratory in nature and immediately enjoyable while deliberate practice includes expending a great deal of effort, and receiving consistent and detailed feedback from others. Studies of expert performers in many fields indicate that it takes at least ten years of consistent deliberate practice to reach an international level of competence (Ericsson, 1996). Applying a number of mental strategies during practice may also provide a more thorough understanding of musical material (Davidson & Scripp, 1992; McPherson, 1997). According to Davidson & Scripp (1992) and Palmer & Meyer (2000), expert musicians tend to have ability to detect errors and adjust accordingly during a performance without interrupting flow while novices tend to have gaps in their cognitive development that may lead to errors. It follows that a performer with strong cognitive abilities has potential to call on an optimal level of resources for creating a successful performance. Lehmann & Ericsson (1997) have proposed a framework for development and dynamics of musical thought, Triangular Model for Mental Representation in Performance. This model proposes that three modes of mental representation are present and interacting during performance which are defined as follows: (a) goal representation, mental representation of desired outcome; (b) current representation, a mental representation concerning reflective listening during performance; and (c) production representation, a mental representation regarding know-how of what makes performance instrument work. Similarities between Lehman & Ericsson's (1997) and Gordon's (1993) work can be seen in that both believe cultivation of an aural image or mental representation is crucial to musicians' development. Gordon (1993) has defined audiation as . …

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