Complementarity criteria, involving the simultaneous or close temporal contiguity of different objects or experiences, are integral components of thinking in young children. Older children and young adults tend to use similarity criteria. In old age, however, the use of complementarity criteria once again increases. Older adults do not necessarily lose the ability to use more abstract criteria, but they often indulge in an alternative mode that offers greater imaginary scope. This reversal to complementarity is likely to be caused by environmental factors rather than changes in competence. Age‐related reductions in abstract thinking are also exasperated by hypertension, and by the presence of the apolipoprotein E 4 gene. Age‐related changes are less pronounced in women, and in individuals with advanced education, challenging work histories, and moderate alcohol use. An alternate explanation for the reduction in abstract reasoning with increasing age has been sought in the reduction of cortical volume in brain areas essential for high levels of abstract thinking.
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