Benefits and Tensions of Shadow Education: Comparative Perspectives on the Roles and Impact of Private Supplementary Tutoring in the Lives of Hong Kong Students

Mark Braya

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Global Educational Reforms and Inequalities Parental Involvement in Education Diverse Education Studies and Reforms

Abstract

Over half of Hong Kong's secondary students receive private supplementary tutoring, and in the last grade of secondary schooling the proportion exceeds 70%.Such tutoring is widely called shadow education because it mimics the regular system -as the curriculum in the schools changes, so it changes in the shadow; and as the regular school system expands, so does the shadow.The scale of private tutoring has grown significantly in the last two decades, and has become a standard feature of the lives of many families.Some tutoring is provided one-to-one by professionals, semi-professionals or amateurs; other tutoring is provided in small groups; and yet other tutoring is provided in lecture formats.Such tutoring demands significant financial investment by households, and also consumes substantial amounts of students' time.Some tutoring has benefits in helping slow learners to keep up with their peers and in stretching further the learning of high achievers.Parents may also prefer to pay other people to manage homework and related stresses.However, tutoring can also increase pressures on young people, and is not always effective.This paper presents Hong Kong data within a framework that compares local patterns with those in other parts of the world.It raises questions about the implications of patterns and about appropriate responses for families, educators and policy makers. *Science is a combination of biology, chemistry and physics ** Business is a combination of economics, accounting and business *** Humanities covers humanities subjects other than English and Chinese, including history and geography # All students who spend time on tutoring in a subject during ordinary season, examination season and/or holiday season are included in the percentage

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References

2003Education fever: society, politics, and the pursuit of schooling in South Korea 2012Shadow education: Private supplementary tutoring and its implications for policy makers in Asia 2010Private tutoring and mass schooling in East Asia: reflections of inequality in Japan, South Korea, and Cambodia 2009Confronting the Shadow Education System: What government policies for what private tutoring?2012Shadow Education: Private Supplementary Tutoring and Its Implications for Policy Makers in Asia 2011The Challenge of Shadow Education: Private Tutoring and its Implications for Policy Makers in the European Union 2010Private tutoring in Eastern Europe and Central Asia: policy choices and implications 2011Does cram schooling matter? Who goes to cram schools? Evidence from Taiwan

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2016Micro-neoliberalism in China: public-private interactions at the confluence of mainstream and shadow education 2014Measurement Issues in Research on Shadow Education: Challenges and Pitfalls Encountered in TIMSS and PISA 2020Associations of private tutoring with Chinese students’ academic achievement, emotional well-being, and parent-child relationship 2022Influences of shadow education on the ecology of education – A review of the literature

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